Buy Back of Securities- An Analysis

Repurchase of Securities-An Analysis Free Online Research Papers Presentation Offer capital is a fundamental piece of an organization, recorded or unlisted. Offer capital can be of two kinds for example value share capital or particular offer capital. The offer capital of an organization must be bought in by at least one people. After the portion of an organization has been dispensed to the buying in individuals, the endorsers have no directly over the cash gone as continues of the offers bought in. All that the investor has is the option to cast a ballot at the comprehensive gatherings of the organization or the option to get profits or option to such different advantages which may have been recommended . The main alternative left with the investor so as to understand the cost of the offer is to move the offer to some other individual. Be that as it may, with the presentation of segment 77A, 77AA, and 77B in the Companies Act, 1956 the investor can understand the cost by selling straightforwardly to the organization . Repurchase of Securities When all is said in done terms repurchase of offers can be comprehended as the procedure by which an organization repurchases its offer from its investor or a hotel an investor can take so as to sell the offer back to the organization. Repurchase of offers is only opposite of issue of offers by an organization . It implies the acquisition of its own offers or other indicated protections by an organization. If there should arise an occurrence of repurchase, an organization offers to reclaim its offers claimed by the financial specialists at a predetermined cost commonly decided or showed up at based on the normal cost of the offers in the previous hardly any months. This count is generally done at a higher cost than normal available cost in order to pull in progressively number of speculators, which may change according to the budgetary judiciousness of the organization . Therefore, repurchase is one of the conspicuous methods of capital rebuilding. Authoritative History Under Section 77 of the Companies Act, 1956, a constrained organization is precluded from repurchasing its own offers. The essential purpose behind such a restriction was an inclination that permitting organizations to repurchase their offers could offer ascent to organizations ‘trafficking’ in their own offers prompting unfortunate practices in the securities exchange, similar to insider exchanging or other such undesirable impacts on stock costs . There was additionally an anxieties that presentation of repurchase was probably not going to improve the financial exchange atmosphere, yet on the opposite decline the atmosphere as repurchase would more then likely encourage more control This general restriction has been weakened by the rule, which allows an organization to repurchase its protections subsequent to following the procedural shields gave in Section 77A, 77AA and 77B of the Companies Act. Before the Amendment of the Companies Act in 1999, the laws with respect to the purchasing of its offer by the organizations were tough. There was no chance an organization could repurchase its offers from the investors without an earlier authorization of the Court (aside from the particular offers). In 1887, in was held on account of Trevor v. Whitworth , that an organization constrained by offers may not buy its own offers as this would add up to an unapproved decrease of capital. The method of reasoning for this choice was that however the leasers of the organization settle on choices about its credit-value on a few grounds, yet a significant ground is the measure of its offer capital. On the off chance that the courts had not set up at a beginning time that capital was ‘sacrosanct’ and couldn't be come back to investors at their impulse, at that point share capital would not have been ensured. Without this security, loan bosses could discover investors exhausting offer capital, with lenders left to convey all the business dangers. In India, the standard in Trevor v. Whitworth was revered in Section 77 of the Companies Act, 1956 which disallowed an organization constrained by shares, or by ensure, and having an offer capital from purchasing or dropping its own offers, nor may an organization do so in a roundabout way, by getting someone else to purchase the offers for its benefit, except if it conformed to the arrangements and followed the system for decrease of offer capital under Sections 100 to 104 of the Companies Act, 1956 which included authorization by the Court. In this way, by suggestion, a boundless organization can buy its own offers. Article 3(e) of Table E, Schedule 1 to the Act offers capacity to such organizations to lessen its offers in any capacity . Essentially, relinquishment for non-installment of calls and legitimate acquiescence don't include acquisition of offers by the organization . Any important thought paid out of the company’s resources adds up to an exchange of procurement . A preclusion on the repurchase of offers along these lines existed by uprightness of Section 77 of the Companies Act, 1956 under which a repurchase could be made distinctly by decrease of offer capital. Afterward, the suggestions of a Working Group on Companies Act, 1956 established by the Central Government, prompted addition of area 77A and 77B. This Amendment was proposed to acquire Indian law equality with its British partner . From that point, the idea of Buy-back of protections which was proposed in the Companies Bill, 1997 was consolidated in the Companies Act by the Companies (Amendment) Ordinance 1998. Area 77A of the Act alludes to the intensity of an organization to buy its own Securities subject to the arrangements of Section 77A (2) and segment 77B of the Act. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has given the SEBI (Buy-back of Securities) Regulation 1998, which are pertinent to recorded organization on a stock trade. Different organizations are directed by Private Limited Company and Unlisted Public Limited Company (Buy-back of Securities) Rules, 1999. Goals OF BUY-BACK OF SHARES In the expressions of the working gathering which suggested the presentation of repurchase in the organizations demonstration: â€Å"It is a mistaken conviction that the sole purpose behind repurchase is to square threatening dominate. In this association it is appropriate to list five reasons why the bank of England supported the creation of law to permit organizations to repurchase their portions of which blocking take-over was just one: To return surplus money to investors To build the basic offer worth To help the offer costs during brief shortcoming. To accomplish or keep up an objective capital structure. To forestall or repress unwanted assume control over offers. Quickly an organization turning to the repurchase may have surplus money, and it might not have discovered the correct road to put away such excess money, during such time of quandary the organization may choose to restore the overflow money by repurchasing its offers, with an expectation that sometime in the future when the organization welcomes on an extension the financial specialists don't free their confidence in the organization. Besides the organization should consider purchasing its offers so as to expand the estimation of the offers which after the procedure of repurchase despite everything stay in the market. For after the offers are repurchased the quantity of attractive offers become less and consequently the costs increment. Thirdly, now and again there is a droop in the offer market because of no deficiency of the organization. Despite the fact that the sluggard might be impermanent however may have proceeded unreasonably long .The administration at that point may choos e to offer an incentive to the investors and repurchase their offers at a cost higher than the market cost. This is commonly done to ingrain confidence in the psyches of the investors. Sparing an organization from unfriendly take-over has consistently been viewed as a significant power behind realizing this revision, the organization may utilize the excess money accessible in repurchasing its offers and bringing the quantity of skimming shares down, bringing about the admirer not thinking that its a commendable venture or a beneficial obtaining. These could be sure reasons why an organization may depend on repurchase of its offers. Therefore to put it plainly, offers might be repurchased by the organization because of at least one of the accompanying reasons: To build advertisers holding; Increment income per share; To improve return on capital profit for total assets and to upgrade the term investor esteem; To give an extra leave course to the investors when offers are underestimated or are meagerly exchanged; To upgrade union of stake in the organization; To return surplus money to the investors; To accomplish ideal capital structure; Justify the capital structure by discounting capital not spoke to by accessible resources; Bolster share esteem; To upset unfriendly takeover; To pay surplus money not required by business. Methods OF BUY-BACK The repurchase of offers or protections might be in any at least one of the accompanying modes: existing security-holders on a proportionate basis(tender offer technique); the open market through: o book building process as per Regulation 17; o stock trades as per Regulation 15; or odd parcels, in other words, where the part of protections of an open organization, whose offers are recorded on a perceived stock trade, is littler than such attractive parcel, as might be indicated by the stock trade; or the protections gave to workers of the organization as per a plan of investment opportunity or sweat value. Denied MODES OF BUY-BACK: No organization will legitimately or by implication buy its own offers or other determined protections : Through any auxiliary organization including its own auxiliary organization; or Through any speculation organizations or gathering of venture organizations; or On the off chance that a default, by the organization, has been made in regard of: o Repayment of store or intrigue payable consequently, or o Redemption of debentures or inclination shares, or o Payment of profit to any investor, or o Repayment of any term advance, or o Interest payable consequently to any monetary organization or bank. On the off chance that the organization has not agreed to the arrangements of segment 159, 207 and 211 of the Act. Besides, a recorded organization is denied from repurchasing its protections through arranged arrangements, spot exchanges, private courses of action and insider dealings . SOURCE

What is the Election Procedure in India?

A political race is a challenge between various applicants from different gatherings out of which the voters choose one as their agent. There may likewise be free up-and-comers participating in the political race. There are following stages in the discretionary procedure (strategy): (a) Delimitation of supporters: First of all the whole region the entire nation on account of Lok Sabha races and of that specific State on account of Legislative Assembly decisions is separated into the same number of bodies electorate as there are seats. (b) Preparation of voters' rundown: After the outline of voting public, the voters' rundown of every supporters is arranged and distributed. (c) Filing of assignment papers: The dates of political decision, documenting of selection papers and withdrawals are fixed by the Election Commission. Any individual, who needs to battle the political decision, can record his designation papers by the due date. His name must be there in the voters' rundown and he ought to be qualified to battle political race. His name ought to be proposed and supported by the voters of that Constituency. Each competitor needs to store some security alongside his selection papers. d) Scrutiny of designation papers and withdrawals: A date is fixed for the investigation of all the selection papers. In the event that the assignment papers of any up-and-comer are seen as not all together, they are dismissed. The applicants can likewise pull back their names from races upto a specific date fixed by the Election Commission. (e) Election battle: The fol lowing stage in the political race is the political race by different up-and-comers and ideological groups. Banners are appropriated, gatherings are held and addresses are conveyed. Parades are additionally taken out and here and there utilization of Radio and Television is likewise made. Through every one of these methods voters are mentioned for votes. The political race typically closes 48 hours before the political decision. Albeit each ideological group and up-and-comer are allowed to do their political race yet as per our political decision laws no gathering or up-and-comer can (I) pay off or undermine the voters. (ii) bid to the voters for the sake of station or religion. (iii) use government assets for political race. (iv) spend in excess of 25 lakhs for a Lok Sabha Election and Rs. 0 lakh for an Assembly Election. In the event that they enjoy any of the above practices their political race can be repealed by the court much after they have been appropriately chosen. (f) Model set of accepted rules: notwithstanding the laws, all the ideological groups in the nation have consented to a model implicit rules for the political race. This incorporates: (I) Any spot of love will not be utilized for political race purposeful publicity. (ii) Criticism of the contradicting applicants will be constrained to their approaches and projects past record of open help and not notice of their private individual lives. iii) The administration official vehicle like vehicle, vehicles, apparatus and airplane and work force will not be utilized by government authorities or clergymen. (iv) No banners, flyers or notice, trademarks will be set on any structure without the authorization of the proprietor. (v) Any pastor will not set down establishment stones of any task, make arrangements and move of authorities or make any guarantees for giving open offices after the races have been declared. (g) Voting: On the date fixed before, casting a ballot happens. For casting a ballot, political decision stalls are set up. Voters go to the surveying corners and cast their decisions in favor of the up-and-comers of their decision. Casting a ballot is held by mystery voting form. Nowadays Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) is utilized to record votes. EVM has the names of the competitors and their political race images. The voters need to press the catch against the name and image of the applicant they wish to decide in favor of. (h) Counting of votes and statement of result: After the democratic is finished, the polling stations are fixed and taken to the tallying focuses. There the voting booths are opened before the up-and-comers or their specialists and votes are tallied under the oversight of the bringing officer back. An applicant who gets the most elevated number of votes is announced chosen. (I) Election request: If any applicant feels that the political decision in his Constituency has not been held appropriately, or in the event that he has any protest against the outcome, he can document a political decision appeal in the Court. In the event that the complaints raised are seen as right the court can put aside that political decision. In that Constituency, the political race will be held once more.

6 Degrees of Separation From Gabriel García Márquez to Susan Sontag

6 Degrees of Separation From Gabriel García Márquez to Susan Sontag The publishing community is connected, and many authors know each other. Some connections are famous like Nobel Laureates Nelly Sachs and Selma Lagerlof, who were good friends. Lagerlof even helped Sachs escape from the Nazis and relocate to Sweden. Also, Nobel Laureate Toni Morrison was a long-time friend of James Baldwin. According to the six degrees of separation, any two people can be connected by a maximum of six people. This inspired me to connect García Márquez with Sontagâ€"authors coming from different parts of the Americas. Gabriel García Márquez Born in 1927 in northern Colombia, Gabriel García Márquez is one of the most-read authors from Latin America. Affectionately called Gabo, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. Mostly a fiction writer, some of his well-known works are Cien años de soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude); Crónica de una muerte anunciada (Chronicle of a Death Foretold); and El amor en los tiempos de cólera (Love in the Time of Cholera). One of the notable interviews that he did through the years was with Chilean poet Pablo Neruda. Pablo Neruda Pablo Neruda is another Nobel Laureate, having received the award in 1971. Born in 1904 in Parral, Chile, he lived in Temuco during his early years. The poets real name was  Neftalí Ricardo Reyes Basoalto. He adopted the last name Neruda from Czechoslovakian poet, Jan Neruda. Among his popular collections of poems are: Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada (Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair), and  Residencia en la tierra (Residence on Earth). In addition to meeting Gabriela Mistral at a young age, Neruda also knew Federico García Lorca, according to the Nobel Prize organization. Chilean writer Isabel Allende was once invited to interview him. Isabel Allende During that scheduled interview, Pablo Neruda told Isabel Allendeâ€"then a journalistâ€"that she should write literature. Born in 1942, Allende has also worked as a college professor. Her first novel, La casa de los espíritus (The House of the Spirits), brought her writing international attention. Other popular books of hers include De amor y de sombra (Of Love and Shadows) and Hija de la fortuna (Daugther of Fortune). According to her biography, shes received many awards, including the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom and the PEN Center Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2018, when she received an award by the National Book Foundation, so did author Sigrid Nunez. Sigrid Nunez Novelist Sigrid Nunez has won several awards for her writing, including Whiting Writers Award and the Rome Prize in Literature. She was born in New York City, where she grew up. Nunez’s work has been translated into nine languages and is in the process of being translated into fourteen more, her official website says. As a professor, Nunez has taught at the following colleges: Boston University, Princeton, Columbia and the New School. So far, she has published seven books and her most celebrated has been The Friend. Nunez has also written for journals like The Paris Review, Threepenny Review, Tin House, and more. One of her books is titled Sempre Susan: A Memoir of Susan Sontag. Susan Sontag Susan Sontag wrote in different stylesâ€"novels, essays, screenplays and reviews. Books of hers include The Benefactor, Styles of Radical Will, On Photography and Death Kit. During her lifetime, she spent a significant period of time in New York City. In 2019, The Metropolitan Museum of Arts Gala theme was Camp, inspired by her essay from 1964 Notes on Camp. Musicians Harry Styles and Lady Gaga, tennis star Serena Williams, and Alessandro Michele, the creative director of Gucci were the co-chairs of the event.

The Case Of Lance Armstrong - 810 Words

This team application is based on the case study of Lance Armstrong, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). As a professional cyclist, Lance Armstrong dominated his competition, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). He was viewed as a celebrity, donating several millions of dollars for charity and was endorsed by several big name corporations, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). For the most part, he was placed on a high pedestal and praised for all of his achievements. He began riding at a young age, winning numerous local and national competitions, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). To be eligible to enter these competitions he had to lie about his age, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). At the young age of sixteen he had already established his dominance, by being named rookie of the year, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). Based on the case study, Armstrong turned professional right out of high school at the age of eighteen, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). He was picked up by the U.S cycling team, which marked the beginning of his obsession to be the best, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). I believe it was at this stage in his career which identified the true transitioning period. Prior to becoming professional, his raw natural talent was enough to distance him from the pack He was skilled and physically developed to achieve greatness, (Clayton and Fisher, 2013). His physical makeup differed from most, his body’s ability to effectively use oxygen was quite amazing. According to the case study, his VO2 efficiency levelShow MoreRelatedThe Case Of Lance Armstrong1868 Words   |  8 Pagesexception to ethical expectations set by society. The case of Lance Armstrong is a prime example of a superior athlete who blew any chances at being a positive role model due to a lack of ethical values. Armstrong is publically known for winning seven Tour de France titles between the years of 1999 to 2005. These were later stripped from him after the athlete confessed to taking performance-enhancing drugs during those years. Stakeholders involved in the case include his fans, sponsors, teammates, competitorsRead MoreEssay on Lance Armstrong Case Analysis 21324 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿When Bullying Leads to Believing â€Å"Following Lance Armstrong: Excellence Corrupted case study, written by Clayton Rose and Noah Fisher 2014, of Global Research Group for Harvard Business School.† When it came to the sport of cycling, Lance possessed characteristics that made him unique. His ability to take in and use oxygen effectively was higher than an average man by 90% and a trained and active many by 42%. Lance also produced less lactic acid than others, which allowed him to dominate theRead MoreLance Armstrong Ethical Dilemma Case Study1806 Words   |  8 PagesEthical Dilemma The decision maker for the ethical dilemma for the lance Armstrong case is Chris Carmichael, the coach. 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Performance enhancing drugs are a dangerous form of medicineRead MoreThe Effects Of Steroids On The Human Body, Steroids Sports, And Reasons Why People Use Steroids1251 Words   |  6 Pagesfurther my knowledge on this topic. Introduction About A. Types 1. Anabolic 2. Corticosteroids III. History A. 1954 1. Weight lifting 2. Olympics B. Ancient Athletes IV. Sports A. Athletes 1. Alex Rodriguez 2. Lance Armstrong B. Regulations V. Effects A. Side effects 1. Aggravation 2. Acne 3. Liver failure B. Addictions VI. Reasons A. Gains B. Self glorification VII. Conclusion Steroids Steroids have a bad reputationRead MoreEthical Issues For Livestrong 53171 Words   |  13 PagesShekhani(T00039156) Tung Phan(T00053780) Edward Mishio (T00000000) November 19, 2014 Contents Company Background: 2 Case Background: 3 Ethical Issues for Livestrong 5 Organization Perspective: 5 Funders Perspective: 5 Breakdown of stakeholders involved 7 Organization’s Response: 9 Conclusion: 11 Recommendations: 11 Bibliography: 11 Company Background: In 1996, at the age of 25 Lance Armstrong was diagnosed with testicular cancer that spread to his brain, lungs and abdomen. He educated himself aboutRead MoreSteroids And Its Effects On The Body985 Words   |  4 Pageschampionship. The best example is the case of Lance Armstrong, the best American bicyclist and the more successful in the history of the sport. Armstrong was found positive in many anti-doping test. According to the U.S Anti-Doping Agency â€Å"Lance Armstrong receives lifetime ban and disqualification of competitive results (medals for doping violations stemming from his involvement in the U.S postal service pro-cycling team doping conspiracy† (USADA). Lance Armstrong managed to destroy his successful career

Billionaire Boy by David Williams Essay - 523 Words

Plot of Billionaire Boy: The lovely book â€Å"Billionaire Boy† is about 12-year-old billionaire Joe Spud who lives with his billionaire father, Len Spud, who invented the most famous toilet tissue Bum Fresh. Both have everything anybody could ever ask for, such as an orangutang butler, 21 bathrooms, a cinema and servants. Joe is very sad about not having any friends and being bullied at a private school, which he leaves and joins a comprehensive or public one. There he meets another 12-year-old, Bob, with whom he becomes friends. A little later in the book, a cross-country run takes place where Bob and Joe become last/second last. Following this, they decide to go to the kind Newspaper agent Raj, who always has everything. Whilst they are†¦show more content†¦Bob is now unable to comprehend what has just happened and is angered. This causes the friendship to become very tense and a conflict arises between the two. Once the half-term holidays have ended, a new girl, Lauren arrives to the school and all the boys, including Joe, have their eyes on her. Soon Joe and Lauren become best friends. Until Joe comes home one day and finds out that his Dad is holding a massive party. This only upsets him a little, due to his father not spending any time with him. Sapphire then shares that she had seen Lauren on TV before. Soon enough Joe found out that his father had decided to pay Lauren, in order for he to befriend Joe. Joe then decides to run away from home. Following his runaway, Raj the newsagent, through fortune finds Joe sleeping in a skip and talks with Joe about his situation. Joe decides to go to Bobs home to apologies for his behavior and actions. Bob kindly accepts his apology, but soon finds out that Mr Spud had lost his fortune due to everyone suing him, as his company BumFresh is making everyones bottom go purple. Even the queen was affected. His son, Joe, then decides to return to his home. Joe returns to his home (BumFresh Towers) and his father suggests that he should retrieve something from the house before everything is taken of them. His father is surprised when Joe returns with a rocket made out of loo roll because he says it was made from love. At the end of the novel, Joe and his dadShow MoreRelatedHigher Education Is The American Dream Essay1710 Words   |  7 Pagesbeing exposed to a wide range of knowledge, by becoming better prepared for employment, higher education becomes the higher pursuit. The first reason students should pursue higher education is because it can help them learn how to think. According to David Foster Wallace, â€Å" Learning how to think really means learning how to exercise some control over how and what to think. 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The Development of International Relations Free Essays

INTRODUCTION This paper begins by outlining the definitions and what exactly is meant by international relations. Secondly, it tells the story of how and why the study of international relations emerged when it did, during the course of modern history. Even though, the history and the origins of this discipline alone does not reveal everything we need to know about how international relations functions in this day and age, it certainly would help us to understand the legacy left behind by this study’s original purpose, international gains and calamities, and by its traditional schools of thought; explanations starting from the time of the Great Powers, to the French Revolution, the first of the alliances, the Industrial revolution, the two World Wars along with the consequent Cold War, the formed international organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, and finally, to where international relations stands today. We will write a custom essay sample on The Development of International Relations or any similar topic only for you Order Now The final outcome of this paper is to create a detailed understanding on the readers mind on how international relations developed into what it at present is – a science, or rather a field of study – during the course of the modern history, starting from the 16th century. WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? International relations is a field of study that seeks to understand a variety of global issues, foreign affairs and the interactions of nations and states within the international system. International relations draw upon its expertise from a variety of other fields such as social science, including geography, history, sociology, political science, economics, law, etc†¦ It is therefore a challenging field to master due to its both diverse and complex nature. Strictly defined, the field of International Relations (IR) concerns the relationships among the world’s governments. However, these so called world’s governments or in other words nation states, alone cannot regulate the events taking place in international arena. They in fact are connected or rather influenced by other actors, namely, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs) along with other social structures such as economics, cultural differences and ideology. Furthermore, the study of nternational relations has always been heavily influenced by normative considerations, such as the goal of reducing armed conflict and increasing international cooperation. International relations are an exceptionally important aspect of citizenship in a global society. As our world becomes smaller and smaller through communication technology, speedy air transportation and a complex international economy and interactions, the value of peaceful and cooperative relationships between nations is increasingly important. HISTORY The concept of international relations on some level is probably quite old, given that humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. Aspects of international relations have been studied for thousands of years, since the time of Thucydides, but IR became a separate and definable discipline in the early 20th century. However, many people agree that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century – the dawn of the modern era – when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. THE TREATY OF WESTPHALIA (1648) The modern international system is often dated from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which established the principles of independent, sovereign stated that continue to shape the international system today. Many even consider this treaty, also knows as the Peace of Westphalia as the birth of international relations as a field of study. The Treaty of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabruck and Munster, Germany. These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. These treaties resulted from a big diplomatic assembly, thus initiating a new system of political order in central Europe, between the Hapsburg alliance (Austria-Hungury and Spain) and the Protestant countries (France, Britain, Sweden). Later it was called by many parties as the Westphalian sovereignty. The key factor to this ystem was the ability of one state to balance the power of another state so that it could not obtain power of smaller units and create a universal empire, thereby forming a relationship between the many nations within the European terrain. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 – 1799) The French Revolution (1789–1799), was a period of drastic social and political turmoil in France and one that had a major impact not only on France but also throughout the rest of Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed within a mere three year period. However, 5 directors established control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte. Meanwhile, by the nearing end of the 18th century Britain’s power multiplied due to industrialization along with its rival at the time, France. What was once the great powers in Europe and the adjacent terrain were by this era beginning to decline, namely Sweden, Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, nations such as Russia and then followed by Prussia (the forerunner of modern-day Germany) also developed in to major players or rather great powers. THE NAPOLEANIC WARS (1803 – 1815) The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of wars declared against Napoleon’s French Empire by opposing coalitions. The underlying causes for these Napoleonic Wars took place due to many reasons. For one thing, the French Revolution inspired a desire among the French to export the ideals of freedom, equality and union. As a result, neighboring monarchs, especially the British Empire, found this very threatening. Napoleon happened to be both brilliant and energetic in defending the state from its enemies. Eventually, the dynamics of war and the changes in revolutionary spirit made Napoleon King of France and the territories he had conquered. Now he became a different kind of threat as he wanted to maintain his popularity and control in France through conquest of neighboring states. Thereby France, a single, very powerful European state was regarded as a threat to world stability and had to be put down. One way or the other France was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by an alliance of Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Prussia. Nevertheless, Europe’s’ supreme, the British empire realizing the threat that another challenging nation (the Napoleon’s empire) could bring upon, and therefore established an alliance with fellow European nations in 1815 named as the Congress of Vienna. THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1814 – 1815) The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by the Austrian statesman and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. This is to date considered as one of the first the most prominent alliances, or a series of relations between nations in the history of international relations. THE CONCERT OF EUROPE (1815 – 1914) The Convert of Europe was the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914). Its founding powers were Austria, Prussia, the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, the members of the Quadruple Alliance which was responsible for the downfall of the First French Empire. However, in time France was established as a fifth member of the concert. The Concert of Europe, however, is closely connected to the congress of Vienna. It was the balance of power that existed in Europe from the fall of Napoleon in 1815 to the beginning of the First World War. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 – 1830) The term Industrial Revolution is normally reserved for a set of events that took place in Britain roughly from 1760 to 1830. The historical events in question consisted of a set of technological, economic, and social changes that in the long run revolutionized not just the British economy but that of the rest of Western Europe, North America, and eventually much of the rest of the world. For Instance, The industrial Revolution sparked in Britain with the invention of the steam engine in 1769. Wooden sailing ships were discontinued in production. Instead, the manufacturing of larger and faster coal powered iron steamships took its place. These accomplishments put Britain as the leading role in world’s economy along with two other competitors; USA from the west ; Japan from East. These developments in the fields of marine, road going and rail roads not only increased the world production and trade but also tied distant locations more closely together more faster and more economically. Furthermore, Britain dominated world trade in this period due to its advancement in technology was way above par at the time. Thus, it products met massive competition and as a result British Policy tend to favor free trade. The United Stated nevertheless overtook the British in terms of economy by the end of the 19th century, despite the fact that they suffered greatly during the great depression. However the United States government’s role in the economy intensified during World War II. By the dawn of the 20th century not only the British but also the United States and Japan were in the process of selling their merchandise in foreign land, and this to economically, industrially and socially influenced the field of international relations immensely. THE TWO WORLD WARS (1900 – 1950) The twentieth century saw the lights of two unfortunate World Wars. World War I took place during 1914 to 1918 and World War II, during the period of 1939 to 1945, together occupying a decade of the 21st century. Unlike a conventional war between two nations these two world wars were global or hegemonic wars in which almost all major states participated in an all out struggle over the future of the international system. WORLD WAR I (1914 – 1918) World War I was a global war centered in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. This war is one which symbolizes the tragic irrationality of war. It was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until the start of World War II in 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter. It involved all the world’s great powers. It involves the almost all the worlds great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centered around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). Although the participating great powers made plans for a quick, offensive and rapid victory – what has been called the cult of offensive, the war was neither short nor decisive. In fact scholars indicate it was a catastrophic war that was unnecessary and perhaps even accidental. Russia happened to be the first nation state to crumble as Revolution at home made it retreat from war in 1917. The revolution eventually let to the founding of the Soviet Union. Further, the entry of the United States on to the war turned the tables upside down for Germany. The Triple Alliance was consequently defeated by the United Kingdom, France and Russia which saw the end of the 1st World War. THE TREATY OF VERSALLIES (1919) The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (which was a reason for the occurrence of the world war). At the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to give up territory, pay reparations, limit its future armaments and most importantly admit to guilt of the war, while the other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties. Even thought the treaty was agreed upon, the German resentment against the harsh terms of the Versaillian treaty would contribute to the German aggression in the mid 1930’s and later on, during the course of World War II. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1920 – 1946) Witnessing the painful experience in World War I, at the time US president, Woodrow Wilson, along with other idealistic mindsets placed their hopes for peace in the newly formed League of Nations. The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, and SDN in its other official languages), was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organization whose primary and principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. Yet, the League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain and others. The onset of World War II showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The United Nations or the UN (which would be discussed later on) replaced it after the end of the war and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League. WORLD WAR II (1939 – 1945) World War II, or the Second World War was a global war that was underway by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved a vast majority of the world’s nations – including all of the great powers – eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies (U. S. Britain, France, Soviet Union, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia) and the Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria). It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100 million people serving in military units. In a state of â€Å"total war†, the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it resulted in 50 million to over 70 million fatalities. These deaths make World War II by far the deadliest conflict in all of human history. Even though, the Empire of Japan was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Germany, and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and most of the countries of the British Empire. Germany therefore set out to establish a large empire in Europe. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or subdued much of continental Europe. Later on however, the nominally neutral Soviet Union fully or partially invaded, occupied and annexed territories of its six European neighbors, including Poland. As a result the United Kingdom remained the only major force continuing the fight against the Axis, with battles taking place in North Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, giving a start to the largest land theatre of war in history, which tied down the major part of the Axis’ military forces for the rest of the war. In December 1941, the Empire of Japan, which aimed to dominate East Asia and Indochina, joined the Axis, attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the West Pacific. The advancement of the Axis nations were stopped in 1942, after Japan lost a series of marine battles and German troops were defeated in North Africa and followed by, at Stalingrad. In 1943, with a series of German defeats in Eastern Europe, the Allied invasion of Fascist Italy, and American victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. Meanwhile in 1944, the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. The war in Europe ended with the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and subsequently the Germans fell into surrender on 8 May 1945. After two devastating nuclear bombing n Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the war in Asia ended on 15 August 1945 when the Empire of Japan agreed to surrender. Thereby, victory of the Ally nations over the Axis in 1945 ended the conflict. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. THE UNITED NATIONS (1945 – Present) The United Nations was established to encourage international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. The great powers that were the know as victors in the war – nations such as the United States, Soviet Union, China, United Kingdom France – became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The United Nations is in fact an international organization whose original aims were regard to facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. Founded in 1945 after World War II it went to replace the League of Nations, in hopes to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. So far the United Nations has been successful in preventing a third World War, which otherwise would probably mean nuclear warfare consequent destruction of the world. Furthermore, the United Nations proclaims to consist of 193 member states, which includes every sovereign state in the world with the exception of Vatican City. Nevertheless, this forming of this organization is known to be the biggest and the most successful alliance between nations in the history of International Relations. THE COLD WAR (1945 – 1889) The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, creating a bipolar world and setting the stage for the Cold War. The cold war lasted for the next 46 years and each of them had its own ideology, its collection of alliances, third world consumers and a deadly armory of nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers started to decline, while the decolonization of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to stabilize post war relations between fellow nations. In addition, the United States forged NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), a military alliance using suppression of communism and encouraging capitalism as a main strategy in 1949, while the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Some countries aligned with either of these 2 superpowers, whilst others chose to remain as Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War was named likewise as it never featured direct military action, since both sides possessed nuclear weapons, and its use would result in mass destruction. However these two parties’ third world allies fell victim to s streak of devastating wars, namely, the Korean War (1950–1953), the Suez Crisis (1956), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the Vietnam War (1959–1975), the Yom Kippur War (1973), the Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979–1989), the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (1983), and the â€Å"Able Archer† NATO military exercises (1983). However, by 1991 the cold war came to an end as the Soviet Union collapsed and reformed in to 12 different states. In the 1980s, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In 1991 occurred the collapse of the Soviet Union, leaving the United States as the dominant military power, and leaving behind a resulting uni-polar world. Nevertheless, the Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy, a huge impact and a rather solid attitude towards the functions of International Relations. The aftermath of Cold War conflict, however, is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to energize Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain sensitive. In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure. SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TODAY The scope of international relations has greatly expanded in modern times. Initially international relations concerned only upon the study of contemporary foreign affairs with a view to draw certain lessons. Later on emphasis began to be laid on the study of both foreign affairs and international law and international relations began to be studied within the framework of international law. The field of the study of international relations was further widened with the establishment of the League of Nations after the First World War and the study of international organizations and institutions. The scope of international relations in the post World War II period got further widened due to significant changes which took place, with the emergence of USA and USSR as two superpowers; the entry of a large number of non-European states into the society of nations; the threat and danger of nuclear warfare; increasing interdependence of states and rising expectations of the people in the under developed third world, etc†¦ CONCLUTION It is in this way quite evident that world history, especially modern world history plays a major role in the development of International Relations as a field of study. Although initial events indicate that war held prominence in international affairs, things were prone to change with the spark of the industrial era and the rapid globalization of the world economy. It is also evident that greater importance began to be placed on scientific study of international relations, which led to development of new methodologies and introduction of new theories in the study of international relations. It is therefore in this way quite clear that all in the recent past, the present and in the future, the scope of International Relations will be thoroughly important for the functions carried out in the international arena. ——————————————– [ 2 ]. Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations, Sixth Edition. Pearson Education Inc. and Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. 2005: 29 [ 3 ]. Columbia Encyclopedia: international relations [ 4 ]. Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations, Sixth Edition. Pearson Education Inc. and Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. 2005: 53 [ 5 ]. â€Å"Principles of the State System†. Faculty. unlv. edu. Retrieved 2012-09-11. [ 6 ]. Bloy, Marjie. The Congress of Vienna, 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815. The Victorian Web. 2009 [ 7 ]. Dockrill, Michael. Atlas of the Twentieth Century World History. NY: Harper Collins, 1991. Ferguson, Niall. The pity of war: Explaining World War I. NY Basic, 1999 [ 8 ]. Willmott, H. P. World War I, New York: Dorling Kindersley Inc. 2003: 27 [ 9 ]. The Triple Entente was the name given to the alliance between France, Britain, and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on August 31, 1907. The alliance of the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Portugal and Japan, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance. [ 10 ]. Bade, Klaus J; Brown, Allison (tr. ) (2003), Migration in European History, The making of Europe, Oxford: Blackwell (translated from the German). [ 11 ]. Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations, Sixth Edition. Pearson Education Inc. and Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. 2005: 53 [ 12 ]. â€Å"Covenant of the League of Nations†. The Avalon Project. Retrieved 30 August 2011. [ 13 ]. Jahanpour, Farhang. â€Å"The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran† (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Retrieved 27 June 2008. [ 14 ]. Barrett, David P; Shyu, Lawrence N (2001). China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Volume 1 of Studies in modern Chinese history. New York: Peter Lang. [ 15 ]. â€Å"General Assembly of the United Nations – Rules of Procedure†. UN Department for General Assembly. Retrieved 15 December 2010. [ 16 ]. â€Å"Milestones in United Nations History†. Department of Public Information, United Nations. Retrieved 17 July 2008. [ 17 ]. Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations, Sixth Edition. Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. 2005: 67 [ 18 ]. Cold War, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cold_War How to cite The Development of International Relations, Essay examples

Mardi Gras free essay sample

Gras The feast before the fast | | Mardi Gras means Fat Tuesday. Traditionally, it is the last day for Catholics to indulge—and often overindulge—before Ash Wednesday starts the sober weeks of fasting that come with Lent. Formally known as Shrove Tuesday, Mardi gras has long been a time of extravagant fun for European Christians. In the United States, Mardi gras draws millions of fun-seekers to New Orleans every year. Mardi gras has been celebrated in New Orleans on a grand scale, with masked balls and colourful parades, since French settlers arrived in the early 1700s. Hidden behind masks, people behaved so raucously that for decades in the early 19th century masks were deemed illegal in that party-loving city. Masks, Music, and Mayhem French royals, feather-covered showgirls, Energizer bunnies, painted clowns, masked lions—you can find them all (and countless others) in the streets of New Orleans at Mardi gras. By dawn on that most famous Tuesday, people have claimed the best spots on the streets to watch fabulous floats, outrageous performers, and visiting celebrities go by. We will write a custom essay sample on Mardi Gras or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many travel hundreds of miles to be a part of the excitement. Marching bands, some of them founded more than a century ago, also take to the streets with music and festive dress. They open the day by spreading jazz music through the city before the more than 350 floats and 15,000 costumed paraders take over the scene. Crazy costumes and wild make-up are the order of the day for paraders and parade-watchers alike. King’s Cake In some countries, King’s Cake — which is a wreath shaped purple, green, and gold cake — is eaten for six weeks. The traditional Mardi gras food usually has a baby Jesus baked into it, and whoever eats the piece with the figurine is believed to have good luck for the rest of the year. Parade Floats The tradition of floats handing stuff out to Parade onlookers started in Renaissance Europe. Back then, parade participants received ale, meat, and even grain. Now it’s different, lol, which people throwing beads. Beaded Necklaces The tradition of throwing beaded necklaces started in the early 1900s, when a float had a Santa Claus throwing glass beaded necklaces into the crowd. It was such a hit, that it soon became a tradition, and that is exactly what Mardi Gras is known for today.